The Prophet Mohammed, born in 570 CE, showed early respect for Jews and Christians, encountering them during a trip to Syria at age 12 and later seeking refuge with the Christian King, Negus, in Abyssinia in 615 CE.

Upon migrating to Medina in 622 CE, he established the Constitution of Medina, fostering a multi-religious community with Jews and others, aiming for peaceful coexistence.

Relations with some Jewish tribes deteriorated from 624 CE. Banu Qaynuqa was expelled in 624 CE for treaty violations, followed by Banu Nadir in 625 CE for plotting against Mohammed. In 627 CE, Banu Qurayza men were executed after being accused of treason during the Battle of the Trench (Wikipedia—Siege of Banu Qaynuqa, Wikipedia—Invasion of Banu Nadir, PBS—Muhammad and Jews of Medina). These actions were considered responses to perceived threats, though they remain controversial.

Interactions with Christians were generally more positive, with the 631 CE jizyah agreement with Najran Christians and the Ashtiname of Muhammad granting protections (The Fountain Magazine - Interactions between Prophet Muhammad and Christians, Wikipedia - Ashtiname of Muhammad). However, the 629 CE Battle of Mu'tah involved conflicts with Byzantine Christian allies, reflecting geopolitical tensions (Wikipedia - Battle of Mu'tah).

The Qur'an criticises Jews and Christians for rejecting Mohammed's message (e.g., Surah Al-Baqarah 2:120-121), and Surah At-Tawbah 9:29-30 commands fighting until they pay jizyah, reflecting conditional conflict rather than a general call for killing. Historical actions, like those against Banu Qurayza, were context-specific, often tied to warfare or treaty breaches.

(121) Those We have given the Book follow it as it should be followed. It is they who ˹truly˺ believe in it. As for those who reject it, it is they who are the losers.

(29) Fight those who do not believe in Allah and the Last Day, nor comply with what Allah and His Messenger have forbidden, nor embrace the religion of truth from among those who were given the Scripture, until they pay the tax, willingly submitting, fully humbled.

(30) The Jews say, "Ezra is the son of Allah," while the Christians say, "The Messiah is the son of Allah." Such are their baseless assertions, only parroting the words of earlier disbelievers. May Allah condemn them! How can they be deluded ˹from the truth˺?

This analysis provides a detailed examination of the Prophet Mohammed's interactions with Jewish and Christian communities, tracing their evolution through historical events and religious texts. It aims to offer an understanding suitable for academic and interfaith dialogue based on reliable historical and scholarly sources.

The Prophet Mohammed was born in Mecca around 570 CE and was exposed to Jews and Christians at the age of 12 during a trading journey to Syria. There, he met Monk Bahira, a Christian who recognised signs of prophethood within Mohammed.

This encounter, along with his later interactions, suggests an initial respect for "People of the Book," a term used in the Quran to denote Jews and Christians as recipients of earlier divine revelations (Tora, Talmud, Gospels, etc).

In Mecca, facing persecution from the polytheistic Quraysh, Mohammed sent early Muslims to Abyssinia in 615 CE, where they were granted asylum by the Christian King Negus, highlighting a positive early relationship with Christians.

This act of refuge underscores a period of cooperation, with Negus affirming the Quranic description of Mary and Jesus.

The Hijra, the journey the Prophet Muhammad and his followers took from Mecca to Medina in 622 CE, marked a significant shift, with the Prophet establishing the Constitution of Medina. This document created a multi-religious polity.

This constitution, dated shortly after the migration (622 CE), included clauses ensuring religious freedom for Jews, Christians, and pagans, aiming to unite them under a common defence pact (Britannica - Constitution of Medina, Wikipedia - Constitution of Medina). During this period, Mohammed adopted Jewish practices, such as praying towards Jerusalem and observing similar fasts, indicating an effort to align with and gain acceptance from the Jewish tribes.

Medina had a significant Jewish population, with tribes like Banu Qaynuqa, Banu Nadir, and Banu Qurayza integrated into the city's social and economic fabric. The initial years saw attempts at coexistence, with the constitution protecting their rights to practice their religion freely.

Tensions with Jewish tribes escalated from 624 CE, driven by their rejection of Mohammed's prophethood and perceived violations of the Constitution of Medina.

The following summary outlines key events:

Muslim sources justified these actions as responses to breaches of trust, such as hostility and alliances with enemies. Still, they remain controversial, with some viewing them as punitive measures against religious dissent. Notably, not all Jewish clans faced such fates; some honoured the pact and lived peacefully in Medina post-conflict.

Interactions with Christians were marked by a different trajectory, generally more peaceful.

However, there were military engagements, such as the Battle of Mu'tah in 629 CE, where Muslims fought against Byzantine forces and their Christian Arab allies. This conflict, detailed in historical accounts, was part of broader geopolitical struggles rather than a direct religious conflict (Wikipedia - Battle of Mu'tah). Another incident involved the murder of a Muslim delegation by a Christian Arab tribe, leading to retaliatory actions, but these were context-specific and did not generalise to all Christians.

"God's will that they be killed" requires examining Quranic verses and historical actions. The Quran acknowledges Jews and Christians as People of the Book (e.g., Surah Al-Baqarah 2:62), but also criticises their rejection of Mohammed's message.

Surah Al-Baqarah 2:62: Indeed, the believers, Jews, Christians, and Sabians - whoever ˹truly˺ believes in Allah and the Last Day and does good will have their reward with their Lord. And there will be no fear for them, nor will they grieve.

Hadiths, like one in Sahih Bukhari about fighting Jews in the end times, are eschatological, not directives for general action. Historical actions, like the execution of Banu Qurayza men, were tied to specific wartime contexts and treaty breaches, not a blanket condemnation.

The relationship with Jews shifted from cooperation to conflict due to theological differences and perceived threats, while with Christians, it remained largely peaceful, with agreements facilitating coexistence.

The historical instances of forced conversion of Christians under Islamic rule reflect deviations from the Quranic principle of no compulsion in religion, often driven by political, social, or religious motivations. Al-Hakim's policies (see below) are seen as exceptional and tied to his eccentricities, while the Almohad Caliphate's policies were part of a broader ideological movement. These events remain controversial, with historians debating their extent, enforcement, and impact on religious communities.

The evidence suggests that such practices were not the norm, with many Islamic empires, such as the Umayyads and Abbasids, known for their tolerance and protection of religious minorities. The slow process of Islamization, as noted in studies like "How did the Christian Middle East become predominantly Muslim?" was often driven by factors like intermarriage and economic benefits rather than forced conversion.

While Islam's foundational texts and early practices emphasised religious freedom for Christians, there were specific historical periods, notably under al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah in the early 11th century and the Almohad Caliphate in the 12th-13th centuries, where forced conversion or the threat of death was enforced. These instances were exceptions, often tied to particular rulers and contexts, and remain subjects of historical debate. Understanding these events highlights the complexity of interfaith relations in Islamic history and the importance of context in interpreting religious policies.

Today, in 2025, in the West, there is a growing intolerance of Islam towards Christians and other non-Muslim groups. In the UK, there is an overt desire by Muslims to establish an Islamic state complete with Sharia law and all the practices of Islam. Could this happen? We will have to let history decide.

However, the Quranic perspective does reflect a complex balance of respect and critique, with fighting commands conditional on context. The historical dynamics, now reflected in the 21st Century, highlight the importance of understanding context in interfaith relations and teach lessons for contemporary tolerance, symbiosis, and meaningful dialogue without recrimination.