*The Practice of Slavery - A Brief Overview
Published by Campbell M Gold in Historical · Saturday 02 Mar 2024
Tags: slavery, history, abolition, society, culture, social, factors, economic, factors, political, factors, impact
Tags: slavery, history, abolition, society, culture, social, factors, economic, factors, political, factors, impact
The Practice of Slavery - A Brief Overview
This material, filled with sensitive and controversial content, is presented here not to influence your opinions but to ignite your academic curiosity. The information and interpretations herein do not reflect any opinion of this editor or our clients. Instead, they invite you to delve into a contentious but crucial re-evaluation.
The practice of slavery has a long, complex and controversial history, spanning millennia, all civilisations, nations, and cultures. As I look back down the corridor of time time, I see that some things never change, and the enslavement of people, overtly or covertly, is one of them...
Introduction
Historically, the impact of slavery varied across different societies and cultures, and its abolition was not a swift event but a gradual and complex process.
Abolition is a struggle influenced by social, economic, and political factors that continue to shape our world today (2024). Do we still have slavery practised today? Yes, slavery, synonymous with "people trafficking", is a multi-billion-dollar industry in our 21st-century world, and it isn't going to go away voluntarily.
Who Practised Slavery?
- Ancient Babylon: Slavery existed but differed significantly from the chattel slavery in other societies. Slavery often resulted from debt or captivity, but it wasn’t necessarily a lifelong condition.
- Ancient Assyria: Slavery existed in ancient Assyria; however, its dynamics were complex, involving legal nuances, elite ownership, and economic considerations.
- Ancient Egypt: Slavery existed in ancient Egypt, where enslaved people were used for labour and other tasks.
- Medieval Egypt: Slavery continued in medieval Egypt.
- Ancient Israel: Ancient Israelite society allowed slavery, but it did not permit total domination of one human being by another. Slavery among the Israelites was closer to what would be called "indentured servitude". Enslaved people were often labourers, and their conditions were less harsh than in some other Near Eastern cultures.
- Ancient Greece and Rome: Both ancient Greek and Roman societies accepted slavery as an institution.
- Islam: Slavery has a complex history in the Muslim world, with various practices and adaptions over time.Mayas, Incas, and Aztecs: These pre-Columbian civilisations in the Americas also practised slavery.
- China: Slavery was present in ancient China, but it differed significantly from the large-scale chattel slavery seen in classical Greece and Rome.
- Japan: Slavery in ancient Japan had a complex history.
- Sub-Saharan Africa: Slavery was widespread in various African regions.
- Russia: Slavery was not widespread; however, serfdom in historical Russia had significant parallels with slavery.
- Brazil: Slavery played a significant role in Brazil’s history.
- Britain: The British economy underwent significant transformation due to the Atlantic Slave Trade.
- United States: Slavery was a central part of the American economy until its abolition.
- Caribbean Nations: Countries like Haiti and Cuba also had a history of slavery.
Later, we will see who still practices slavery today.
Let's review some aspects of historical slavery.
Historical Babylonian Slavery
In ancient Babylon, slavery existed, but it differed significantly from the chattel slavery seen in other societies.
Temporary Slavery:
- Although some Babylonian enslaved people were purchased, others were born into slavery.
- In many cases, slavery was a temporary state. For instance:
- If commoners fell deeply into debt, they could be enslaved to their creditors until the debt was repaid.
- Some Babylonian enslaved people were captives from warfare whose families couldn’t pay their ransom.
Babylonian Society:
- Babylonian society was patriarchal, but women had more rights than in later civilisations like ancient Greece.
- Women could represent themselves in court, own property, pass it down to their children, and hold positions as priestesses and officials.
- It was rare for a Babylonian man to take a second wife, usually permissible only if the first wife could not bear a child.
Class and Slavery:
- Class wasn’t rigid in Babylonian society.
- enslaved people belonged to the "wardum" class.
- Slavery often resulted from debt or captivity, but it wasn’t a lifelong condition.
Historical Assyrian Slavery
Slavery existed in ancient Assyria, but it differed significantly from the chattel slavery seen in some other societies.
Legal Understanding and Debt Bondage:
- The archival texts of the Neo-Assyrian Empire reveal that the Assyrians held a similar legal understanding of slavery to the Greeks.
- They were aware of debt bondage, where individuals became enslaved due to debts owed.
- However, relatively high slave prices prevented slave ownership from becoming widespread among the general population.
Slave Ownership Among the Elite:
- Members of the Assyrian elite owned significant numbers of enslaved people.
- Slave sales were well-documented, with numerous legal transactions recorded.
- These documents mainly derive from archives of various elite members, providing insights into their wealth sources.
- Despite owning large numbers of enslaved people, the elite likely drew most of their income from exploiting bound tenant farmers.
Agricultural Slavery:
- Isaac Mendelsohn highlighted Assyria as an exception regarding agricultural slavery during the eighth–seventh centuries BC.
- However, there are reasons to dispute this view, and reconstruction from cuneiform archival documents remains challenging.
- The Assyrian source material for slavery, especially slave sales, far surpasses that available from classical Greek texts.
While slavery existed in ancient Assyria, its dynamics were complex, involving legal nuances, elite ownership, and economic considerations.
Historical Egyptian Slavery
Slavery in Egypt has a long history, with distinct phases.
Ancient Egypt:
- Slavery was prevalent in ancient Egypt, where enslaved people were primarily obtained through prisoners of war.
- People could also become enslaved due to inherited status or inability to pay debts.
- Poverty often led to slavery, making it a direct result of economic hardship.
- Slavery during the Islamic era focused on three main categories:
- Enslaved men: They were used as soldiers and bureaucrats.
- enslaved women: Often subjected to sexual slavery as concubines.
- Eunuchs and enslaved women: Employed for domestic service in harems and households.
- Agricultural slavery also emerged toward the end of this period.
- enslaved people came from Europe, Caucasus ("white"), Sudan, and sub-Saharan Africa ("black").
- The slave trade gradually declined after the abolition of the slave trade itself in the late 19th century, though existing enslaved people persisted until the 1930s.
Modern Context:
- Egypt remains a source, transit, and destination country for human trafficking, including forced labour and prostitution.
- British pressure led to the abolition of the slave trade, but actual slavery itself persisted until the early 20th century.
Historical Greek and Roman Slavery
Greek and Roman slavery had a significant historical impact.
Ancient Greece:
- Slavery was common in ancient Greece, where enslaved people performed various roles.
- Slavery was seen as a necessary part of Greek society and economy.
- They worked in households, mines, agriculture, and as ship rowers.
- Some enslaved people were highly educated and served as tutors or administrators.
- The concept of freedom was central to Greek thought, leading to philosophical discussions about slavery.
Ancient Rome:
- Slavery was integral to the Roman economy and society.
- enslaved people were acquired through conquest, trade, or birth.
- They worked in agriculture, construction, households, and entertainment.
- Some wealthy Romans owned vast numbers of enslaved people.
- The institution of slavery was both accepted and criticised by Roman thinkers.
Themes:
- enslaved people were considered property, and their lives were often harsh.
- The Roman Empire’s wealth was built on slave labour.
- "Manumission" (the act of freeing an enslaved person) was possible but varied.
- Resistance and rebellion occurred among enslaved people.
- Stoics and Christians debated the nature of freedom and servitude.
Historical Jewish Slavery
The Jewish involvement with slavery is multifaceted, encompassing both religious and historical dimensions:
- Historically, some Jewish individuals owned and traded enslaved people.
- However, scholarly research refutes the notion of Jewish domination in the slave trade during later centuries.
- Jews possessed far fewer enslaved people than non-Jews in Spanish territories in North America and the Caribbean.
Treatment of enslaved people:
- Jewish enslavers generally treated their slaves well, and enslaved people were instructed in Jewish precepts.
- The Jewish perspective tended to view slavery as a form of contract between persons, distinct from chattel slavery.
Biblical and Talmudic Laws:
- Ancient and medieval Jewish texts, including the Hebrew Bible, the Talmud, and works by scholars like Maimonides, contain laws governing the ownership and treatment of enslaved people.
- Hebrew slavery was prohibited during the Rabbinic era (since 70 CE), while non-Jewish slaves were offered conversion to Judaism during their first 12-month term as slaves.
- If accepted, these enslaved people became Jews and were redeemed immediately. If rejected, they were sold to non-Jewish owners.
- The Hebrew Bible contains laws governing the ownership and treatment of enslaved people.
- There were separate laws for Canaanite enslaved people and more lenient laws for Hebrew enslaved people.
- If accepted, these enslaved people became Jews and were redeemed immediately. If rejected, they were sold to non-Jewish owners.
While Jewish history confirms slave ownership, the overall impact on the history of New World slavery was limited.
Historical Islamic Slavery
Slavery has a complex history in the Muslim world, with various practices and adaptions over time.
Historical Context:
- Slavery in the Muslim world began before Islam and was inherited from pre-Islamic Arabia.
- enslaved people served in different roles, from powerful emirs to manual labourers, soldiers, guards, and concubines.
- Destructive slave revolts occurred due to hard physical labour, leading to the eventual end of the practice.
- Many rulers used enslaved people in administration and the military.
- Most enslaved people were imported from outside the Muslim world.
- The Arab slave trade was active in West Asia, North Africa, and Southeast Africa.
- The Ottoman Empire and Barbary Coast were also involved in the slave trade.
- Western pressure led to gradual abolition in some Muslim states.
Modern Context:
- Slavery is officially abolished in most Muslim-majority countries.
- However, instances of modern slavery persist in some areas, particularly in the Sahel region.
- Some jihadist groups have attempted to revive slavery using historical pretexts.
Recent Prevalence:
- In 2021, Saudi Arabia had the highest prevalence of modern slavery among Arab countries, with an estimated 740,000 people affected.
With historical practices continuing to evolve, modern efforts persist in combating slavery and upholding human rights.
Historical Pre-Columbian American Slavery
Slavery in pre-Columbian America was practised by Indigenous peoples both before and after European colonisation.
North America:
- enslaved people were traded across transcontinental networks before European arrival.
- Indigenous groups like the Haida, Tlingit, and Coast Salish engaged in slave trading.
- The Pawnee, Iroquois, Yurok, and Klamath also kept slaves.
Mesoamerica and Caribbean:
- Mayans and Aztecs practised slavery.
- Maya enslaved people were often prisoners of war.
- Aztecs were enslaved for white-collar crimes.
- Human sacrifice victims were often enslaved.
South America:
- In the Inca Empire, workers paid taxes through corvée labour (Mit’a).
- Debates exist on whether this system counts as slavery.
The impact of conquest, slavery, and diseases led to the disappearance of pre-Columbian island populations in the West Indies.
Historical Chinese Slavery
Slavery in ancient China existed, but it differed significantly from the large-scale chattel slavery seen in classical Greece and Rome.
Extent of Slavery:
- Slavery was relatively limited in ancient China. It is estimated that less than 1% of the population were slaves.
- Most people became enslaved either through being captured in war or by selling themselves into slavery to pay off family debts.
Conditions and Roles:
- The lives of enslaved people were filled with hardship. Many were abused, and a significant number were children.
- Most enslaved people worked in the fields alongside peasants, performing similar tasks and having clothing and food similar to free farmers.
Not Equivalent to Classical Slavery:
- Unlike classical Greece and Rome, where large-scale slavery was common, direct equivalents to such systems did not exist in ancient China.
- Slavery in China was often tied to specific circumstances, such as war captives or criminals, rather than a widespread institution.
Historical Japanese Slavery
Slavery in ancient Japan had a complex history.
Yamato Period (3rd Century A.D.):
- Japan had an official slave system during this period.
- Enslaved people were called "seikō" (meaning "living mouth").
- The exact system remains unclear, but it existed.
Medieval Japan:
- As late as 1243, shogunal documents mentioned domestic slavery.
- People could become enslaved due to debt, kidnapping, or criminal acts.
Portuguese Enslaving Japanese:
- After contact with Portugal in 1543, a slave trade developed.
- Japanese were sold as slaves to various locations overseas.
- Some were prisoners of war, feudal lords’ subjects, or sold by their families to escape poverty.
Comfort Women and WWII:
- From 1932 to 1945, the Japanese government facilitated the use of "comfort women" as sex slaves.
- Prisoners of war were also enslaved during this period.
While slavery existed in ancient Japan, it took different forms and had varying impacts.
Historical Indian Slavery
Slavery in ancient India had distinct characteristics.
Early History:
- The early history of slavery in the Indian subcontinent is contested due to varying translations of terms like "dasa" and "dasyu."
- Greek writer Megasthenes, in his 4th-century BCE work "Indika," stated that slavery was banned within the Maurya Empire.
- However, the Edicts of Ashoka (mid-3rd century BCE) independently identified obligations to enslaved people and hired workers within the same empire.
Muslim Domination:
- Slavery escalated during Muslim rule in northern India after the 11th century.
- Hindus were enslaved, and enslaved people served in Muslim armies and households.
- Other Indians were also enslaved after invasions of Hindu kingdoms, with many exported to Central Asia and West Asia.
Enslaved Africans and European Colonialism:
- Enslaved people from the Horn of Africa were imported into the Indian subcontinent.
- The Portuguese imported enslaved Africans into their Indian colonies on the Konkan coast.
- European colonialism continued slavery in India through the 18th and 19th centuries.
Indentured Labour:
- After European chattel slavery ended in the 1830s, a system of indentured Indian labour emerged.
- Over a century, more than a million Indians (girmitiyas) served fixed-term labour contracts in European colonies worldwide.
- While distinct from chattel slavery, their conditions were often gruelling and restricted.
Ancient Indian slavery had complex dynamics influenced by various historical factors.
Historical Russian Slavery
While slavery has not been widespread in what is now Russia since the introduction of Christianity in the tenth century, serfdom played a significant role.
Serfdom in Russia:
- Serfdom in Russia was similar to contemporary slavery in many ways.
- It only ended in 1861 when Russian Emperor Alexander II issued the Emancipation of the serfs.
- The term "krepostnoi krestyanin" referred to serfs, un-free individuals attached to the land they worked on.
Historical Context:
- In Kievan Rus’ and the Grand Duchy of Moscow, a particular type of serf called "holopy" existed.
- Kholopy could become such due to capture, self-sale, debt, crimes, or marriage to a shop.
- Over time, their masters’ power varied, but reforms gradually reduced it.
Source of enslaved people:
- Russian lands served as a source of enslaved people for outsiders.
- For instance, the Golden Horde sacked Moscow in 1382, enslaving thousands of inhabitants.
- Similar raids occurred routinely until well into the 16th century.
Notable Slave Market:
- A notorious slave market for captured Russian and Persian slaves operated in the Khanate of Khiva from the 17th to the 19th century.
- Even in the 21st century, Chechens and Ingush kept Russian captives as enslaved people in the northern Caucasus mountains.
While slavery was not widespread, serfdom in historical Russia had significant parallels with slavery.
The British Economy and the Atlantic Slave Trade
The British economy underwent a significant transformation due to the Atlantic Slave Trade:
- In 1700, 80% of British trade flowed to Europe from ports on the east and south coasts.
- By 1800, 60% of British trade was directed to Africa and America, sailing from the three main west coast ports: Glasgow, Liverpool, and Bristol. These ports, along with London, prospered directly from their involvement in the slave trade.
- Thousands of jobs were created in Britain, supplying goods and services to slave traders.
- Further profits were made by exporting British-manufactured goods to Africa and importing products made using enslaved labour, such as sugar, which became fashionable among the British people
- The slave trade played a crucial role in providing British industry access to raw materials, contributing to increased production of manufactured goods.
- Profits from the slave trade were invested in developing British industries, including constructing canals and railways.
Financial considerations dominated the interests of those involved in the Atlantic Slave Trade during the 18th and 19th centuries, significantly shaping Britain’s economy and world dominance.
Historical African Slavery
Slavery has historically been widespread in Africa. Various forms of servitude and slavery existed across the continent.
Ancient and Medieval Africa:
- Debt slavery, the enslavement of war captives, military slavery, slavery for prostitution, and enslavement of criminals were practised in different parts of Africa.
- Domestic and court slavery was widespread throughout the continent.
- Plantation slavery occurred primarily on the eastern coast of Africa and in parts of West Africa.
- Complex slave relationships existed, with varying rights and freedoms for individuals held in slavery.
Trans-Saharan, Red Sea, Indian Ocean, and Atlantic Slave Trades:
- When these slave trades began, many pre-existing local African slave systems started supplying captives for slave markets outside Africa.
- Export slavery involved trading enslaved people beyond the continent, while indigenous slavery remained within Africa.
Modern Africa:
Slavery in contemporary Africa persists despite being illegal. Here are some notable cases:
Sahel States:
- Mauritania, Mali, Niger, Chad, and Sudan continue a centuries-old pattern of hereditary servitude.
Other Forms:
- Ghana, Benin, Togo, and Nigeria also have instances of traditional slavery.
Slavery has deep historical roots in Africa, shaped by indigenous practices, Islamic institutions, and the Atlantic Slave Trade.
Modern slavery continues and encompasses various forms beyond just ownership, including forced marriages, government-imposed labour, and human trafficking.
Modern Slavery
Modern slavery persists in various countries, affecting an estimated 46 million people worldwide.
The origins of human trafficking, synonymous with modern slavery, are rooted in adverse circumstances in various countries. Recruiters often seek migrants in origin countries, including Southeast Asia, Eastern Europe, and sub-Saharan Africa. These recruiters use multiple channels such as the Internet, employment agencies, media, and local contacts to facilitate trafficking.
The causes of human trafficking include religious persecution, political dissent, lack of employment opportunities, poverty, wars, and natural disasters.
Historically, the transatlantic slave trade also involved international flows of human trafficking, with African groups as both commodities and intermediaries.
Nations where modern slavery is prevalent include:
- North Korea: They have the highest prevalence of modern slavery.
- Eritrea
- Mauritania
- Saudi Arabia
- Turkey
- Tajikistan
- United Arab Emirates: Millions of South Asian migrants, primarily from India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh, are drawn by the promise of high wages and stability. However, they often find themselves trapped in cycles of exploitation and slavery.
- Russia: Modern-day slavery in Russia remains a pressing issue. According to the 2023 Global Slavery Index, approximately 1.9 million people currently live in slavery-like conditions in Russia. These conditions include forced labour, debt bondage, forced prostitution, servile marriage, exploitation of children, and even forced prison labour. Migrant workers from Central Asia, Ukraine, Vietnam, China, Nigeria, and North Korea are often victims of forced labour in Russia.
- Afghanistan
- Kuwait
Modern-Day Slavery in the United Arab Emirates
The United Arab Emirates (UAE), known for its opulent skyscrapers and extravagant lifestyle, conceals a darker reality beneath its glossy facade.
Millions of South Asian migrants, primarily from India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh, are drawn by the promise of high wages and stability.
However, they often find themselves trapped in cycles of exploitation:
- False Promises and Exploitation:
- Unscrupulous work agencies lure migrants with promises of a better life.
- Exorbitant travel and visa costs burden migrants, who often pay these fees themselves.
- Even if employers cover initial recruitment fees, workers seeking to resign may be forced to reimburse the company.
- This exploitation perpetuates a cycle of abuse.
Alarming Statistics:
- The 2023 Global Slavery Index reveals that approximately 132,000 individuals are trapped in modern slavery within the UAE on any given day.
- The UAE ranks seventh globally in terms of modern-day slavery prevalence, with a rating of 13.4%.
Call to Uphold Human Rights:
- The pursuit of progress and prosperity should never compromise human dignity.
- Nations worldwide must prioritise fairness, justice, and respect for every individual, regardless of background or origin.
It’s essential to continue raising awareness and working toward a total abolition of slavery.
Modern Slavery in Ukraine
Ukraine faces significant challenges related to modern slavery. According to the 2023 Global Slavery Index, approximately 559,000 people live in modern slavery within the country.
This equates to a prevalence of 12.8 people in modern slavery for every thousand individuals, placing Ukraine among the countries with the highest prevalence of slavery in Europe and Central Asia.
The situation has been further complicated by Russia’s invasion of Ukraine in 2022, which has led to mass displacement and exacerbated vulnerabilities, especially among children in institutionalised care.
Despite these risks, the number of identified victims has not significantly increased, possibly due to early awareness campaigns and protective measures.
Efforts to combat modern slavery in Ukraine should help to:
- Strengthening access to information and screening for trafficking indicators among vulnerable populations.
- Addressing discrimination against minority groups, including non-Ukrainian nationals and Roma, and improving their access to rights and services.
- Enhancing oversight of care and accommodation for unaccompanied or separated children.
As we work toward a more just and compassionate society, let us remain vigilant in protecting the rights and dignity of all individuals.
Which Countries Exploit Modern People Trafficking
Human trafficking is a grave global issue that affects millions of people. It occurs in many countries, and efforts to combat it vary. Here are some of the worst countries for human trafficking, based on assessments:
Belarus, Iran, Russia, and Turkmenistan:
- These countries remain among the worst when it comes to protection against human trafficking and forced labour.
Europe, the Middle East, North America, and some countries in East Asia and the Pacific:
- These regions are destinations for trafficking victims from a wide range of origins.
- In 2020, 65% of the victims detected in Western and Southern Europe were foreign-born and trafficked from various origin countries.
Combating human trafficking requires global cooperation and awareness.
--()--
Appendix
Barbary Corsairs - Black Slavers
In the first half of the 1600s, Barbary Corsairs, who were pirates from the Barbary Coast of North Africa, were authorised by their governments to attack the shipping of Christian countries.
They roamed all around Britain's shores in their lateen-rigged xebecs ships (the lateen rig of the xebec allowed the ship to sail close hauled to the wind, often giving it an advantage in pursuit or escape) and oared galleys, capturing ships and sailors and selling the sailors into slavery.
Admiralty records indicate that during this time, the pirates looted British shipping with impunity, seizing 466 vessels between 1609 and 1616 and an additional 27 boats near Plymouth in 1625. According to the 18th-century historian Joseph Morgan, this was the "hay day" of the pirates' activities.
Unfortunately, that was not the end of it. Morgan also mentioned that he had a list, printed in London in 1682, of 160 British ships captured by Algerians between 1677 and 1680. Based on the likely number of sailors taken with each ship, it is probable that 7,000 to 9,000 non-disabled British men and women were taken into slavery during those years.
The Barbary Corsairs attacked ships and sailors and raided coastal settlements. They would often run their boats onto unguarded beaches and slip into villages at night to capture people before retreating without raising any alarms.
In 1631, almost all the residents of Baltimore, Ireland, were taken this way.
Similar attacks were also carried out on coastal villages in Devon and Cornwall.
Samuel Pepys describes an encounter with two men who had been thus enslaved in his diary entry dated 08 Feb 1661:
...to the Fleece tavern to drink, and there we spent till 4 a-clock telling stories of Algier and the manner of the life of Slaves there; and truly, Captain Mootham and Mr Dawes (who have been both slaves there) did make me wholly acquainted with their condition there. As, how they eat nothing but bread and water... How they are beat upon the soles of the feet and bellies at the Liberty of their Padron. How they are all night called into their master's Bagnard, and there they lie.
Pepys' casual tone confirms the widespread nature of experiences like those of Moontham and Dawes in 17th-century Britain.
Barbary Coast Slave Numbers
According to reports from the late 1500s and early 1600s, there were approximately 35,000 enslaved European Christians held during that time on the Barbary Coast.
Most were in Tripoli, Tunis, and various Moroccan towns, but the most significant population was in Algiers. Most captives were sailors taken along with their ships, but many fishermen and coastal villagers were also among them.
The British captives were mainly sailors, and although there were numerous, there were fewer of them than people from lands close to Africa, especially Spain and Italy.
The unfortunates from southern regions were sometimes taken by the thousands by Barbary Slavers who frequently raided the coasts of Valencia, Andalusia, Calabria, and Sicily.
This happened so often that it was eventually said that "there was no one left to capture any longer."
There are no records of how many men, women, and children were enslaved. Still, it is possible to roughly estimate the number of new captives needed each year to maintain the slave population and replace those who died, escaped, were ransomed, or converted to Islam. Based on this estimation, approximately 8,500 new enslaved people were required annually to maintain the numbers—equivalent to about 850,000 captives over the century from 1580 to 1680.
Between 1530 and 1780, around 1,250,000 white enslaved people were taken to Barbary. This number is just over a tenth of the total number of Africans brought as slaves to the Americas from 1500 to 1800.
The white enslaved people in Barbary were usually from low-income families and had little hope of their freedom being bought.
Similar to the Africans taken to the Americas, most of them would die as enslaved people in North Africa due to starvation, disease, or maltreatment.
Source:
Archives and AI
There are no reviews yet.