1. Which Societies Had Slaves? - An Historical Perspective
Published by Campbell M Gold in Historical · Thursday 15 May 2025 · 6:30
Tags: slavery, historical, perspective, societies, cultures, economies, ancient, Mesopotamia, modern, times, widespread, practice
Tags: slavery, historical, perspective, societies, cultures, economies, ancient, Mesopotamia, modern, times, widespread, practice
Which Societies Had Slaves?
Introduction
- Slavery was practised by just about every society since ancient times, starting with evidence from Mesopotamia around 3500 BC.
- Ancient civilisations like Egypt, Greece, and Rome, as well as African empires and European colonies, extensively used slavery.
- Slavery is a global phenomenon, including indigenous societies in the Americas and Islamic caliphates.
- Controversy exists over the extent and forms of slavery, especially in modern contexts where it still persists despite legal abolition.
Historical Overview
Slavery has been widespread across various cultures and periods, shaping economies and societies. It was not limited to any region, with evidence from ancient Mesopotamia to modern times.
Notable Societies and Countries
Key examples include ancient Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, and Rome, where slavery was a fundamental component of their economies. African empires like the Mali and Songhai, and later European colonial powers in the Americas, such as Spain and Britain, also practised slavery.
Indigenous societies in the Americas and Islamic caliphates further highlight slavery's global reach.
Modern Context
While legally abolished in most countries, forms of modern slavery, such as forced labour, persist in parts of Africa and Asia, reflecting ongoing challenges.
An Examination of Slavery Throughout History
Slavery, as an institution, has been a pervasive and multifaceted practice throughout human history, influencing societies across continents and epochs. This survey note aims to provide a detailed examination of the countries and cultures that have practised slavery, drawing on historical records and contemporary analyses to offer a comprehensive understanding. The discussion begins with ancient civilisations, extends through medieval and colonial periods, and touches on modern instances, ensuring a comprehensive overview.
Ancient Civilisations and Early Societies
The earliest recorded instances of slavery date back to approximately 3500 BC in Mesopotamia, particularly in Sumer, where it was institutionalised and referenced in the Code of Hammurabi (c. 1750 BC) as a well-established practice.
Ancient Egypt also utilised slavery, with evidence suggesting slaves were employed in construction projects like the pyramids, though the extent and nature vary in scholarly debate.
Ancient Greece, especially Athens, had a significant slave population, with estimates suggesting that between 80,000 and 100,000 slaves existed in the 5th and 6th centuries BC, potentially outnumbering free citizens in specific periods (Slavery in ancient Greece - Wikipedia; What Was the Population of Ancient Greece? - GreekReporter.com).
Rome inherited and expanded slavery from Greek and Phoenician practices, enslaving entire populations as the Republic grew, with slaves from across Europe and the Mediterranean.
Other ancient societies include Ancient China, where early imperial slavery existed during the Qin and Han dynasties, and Ancient India, with debates over pre-Qin Dynasty slavery due to linguistic evidence.
The Akkadian Empire, Assyria, Babylonia, Persia, and Ancient Israel also practised slavery, often as a result of war or debt.
Pre-Columbian civilisations in the Americas, such as the Maya, and African Empires like Nubia, further illustrate the global reach, with indigenous groups like the Tehuelche and Comanche also engaging in slavery in America.
African Empires and Kingdoms
Africa saw extensive slavery, particularly in pre-colonial empires. The Ghana Empire (750–1076), Mali Empire (1235–1645), and Songhai Empire (1275–1591) had significant slave populations, with estimates suggesting one-third to half of specific regions like Senegambia were enslaved between 1300 and 1900.
Kingdoms such as Ashanti, Yoruba, and Kanem-Bornu (1396–1893) also practised slavery, often capturing slaves during warfare.
Modern instances persist, with countries like Mauritania (up to 600,000 or 20% population currently enslaved, criminalised in 2007) and Niger (800,000 enslaved, ~8% population, anti-slavery provision 2003) facing ongoing challenges.
Islamic Caliphates and Sultanates
Islamic societies, including Arab Islamic Caliphates and Sultanates, practised slavery, with the trans-Saharan and Indian Ocean slave trades being significant.
The Ottoman Empire, for instance, took large numbers of Christian slaves during the Byzantine-Ottoman wars, with events like the Battle of Lepanto (1571) freeing 12,000 Christian galley slaves.
Estimates suggest 11.5 to 14 million slaves were traded through Islamic routes into the 20th century, highlighting the scale.
European Colonial Powers and the Americas
The transatlantic slave trade, initiated by Portuguese and Spanish explorers in the 15th century, saw significant involvement from British, French, and Dutch colonies.
Portugal's Brazil received 4 million slaves, accounting for 35.3% of the Atlantic slave trade, while the Caribbean economies had converted to sugar production by the 17th century, requiring even more slave labour.
The United States had 4 million enslaved by 1860, 95% in the South, with the Civil War context seeing 186,000 free blacks and newly freed, fight for the Union.
Canada had 4,200 slaves from 1671–1831, two-thirds indigenous, one-third African
Indigenous Societies and Other Regions
Indigenous societies in the Americas, such as the Tehuelche, Comanche, Caribs, and others, practised slavery, with estimates suggesting ~25% of Pacific Northwest populations being enslaved
In Asia, regions like the Near East and Asia Minor saw slavery in Sumer, Elam, and others, with Vikings raiding Europe for slaves (thralls) sold to Byzantine and Islamic markets.
Scandinavia during the Viking era, and medieval Europe, including the Frankish Empire under Charlemagne, also engaged in slave-taking during wars, with high demand in Muslim empires.
Modern Instances and Persistence
While slavery has been legally abolished in most countries, modern forms persist, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, with debt bondage and domestic slavery noted in Nigeria and India. The Belgian Congo saw 9 million deaths due to exploitative labour practices, and China's Mui Tsai system persisted until the mid-20th century.
Contemporary estimates suggest 49.6 million people live in modern slavery, with significant numbers in forced labour and forced marriage.
Summary
To organise the extensive data, the following material summarises key regions and societies, with specific examples and numbers where available:
Region - Societies/Countries - Details/Examples
- Ancient Civilisations - Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, Rome, China, India - Mesopotamia (3500 BC), Athens (80,000–100,000 slaves), Rome (plantation slavery 2nd BC)
- Africa - Ghana Empire, Mali Empire, Mauritania, Niger - One - third enslaved in Senegambia, Mauritania (20% currently enslaved, criminalised 2007)
- Americas - Spanish America, Brazil, United States, Indigenous societies - Brazil (4M slaves), US (4M by 1860, 95% South), Tehuelche, Comanche (~25% enslaved)
- Asia - Islamic Caliphates, Ottoman Empire, Ancient China - 11.5–14M through Islamic trade, Ottoman Christian slaves, Qin/Han dynasty slavery
- Europe - Vikings, Frankish Empire, British Isles - Vikings sold thralls, Charlemagne's raids, medieval debt slavery
Period - Key Societies - Notable Events/Numbers
- Ancient (pre-500 BC) - Sumer, Egypt, Greece, Rome - Code of Hammurabi (1750 BC), Athens (80,000 slaves, 5th BC)
- Medieval (500–1500) - Vikings, Ottoman Empire, Eastern Europe - Viking raids (800 AD), Ottoman wars (12,000 freed at Lepanto, 1571)
- Colonial (1500–1900) - Portugal, Spain, Britain, the US - Transatlantic trade (900,000 by 1600), US Civil War (38,000 black deaths)
- Modern (1900–present) - Mauritania, Niger, Congo, Libya - Mauritania (600,000 enslaved, 2007), Libya migrant markets
This summary highlights the complexity and global nature of slavery, underscoring its evolution and persistence, and provides a foundation for further exploration into its historical and contemporary impacts.
Sources
- A comprehensive overview of the history of slavery
- Brief history of slavery: a global perspective
- Slavery in ancient Greece: a detailed analysis
- Ancient Greece population estimates
- Modern slavery: global estimates
- Historical context of the slave trade in the Americas
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